THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF ISLAMIC SCHOLARS The Islamic Empire consisted of a society that was multicultural in terms of languages, customs, traditions and religion. As Muslims went forth from Arabia to overcome the countries surrounding them, they encompassed vast lands with peoples of various faiths and cultures. Thus the Islamic Empire not only consisted of Muslims from three continents, Arabs, Persians, Turks, Africans, Indians and other Asians, but also Jews, Christians and other faiths. Therefore scholars from all faiths worked under the umbrella of Islam to supply a novel culture of data and learning. within the paragraphs that follow each major known field of science is taken into account and examined for the contributions made by scholars from the Islamic world. Medicine Muslims gained access to the Greek medical knowledge of Hippocrates, Dioscorides, and Galen through the translations of their works within the seventh and eighth centuries. These initiatives by Muslims may well be seen within the different aspects of the healing arts that were developed. the interpretation movement of the twelfth century in Latin Europe affected every known field of science, none more so than medicine (Meyers, 1964). Two Muslim physicians who become known in Europe during this era were Ibn Sina (980- 1037) and Al-Razi (865-925). Ibn Sina devoted his life to the study of medication, philosophy and other branches of science. Renowned throughout medieval Europe as Avicenna, he established free hospitals and developed treatments for diseases using herbs, hot baths, and even surgery. His famous book The Canon of drugs was translated into Latin within the twelfth century and it absolutely was employed in medical schools throughout Europe until the arrival of contemporary science (Beshore, 1998; Meyers, 1964). The Canon of medication contained all Greek medical knowledge along with Arabic interpretations and contributions. Ibn-Sina wrote some 99 books managing philosophy, medicine, geometry, astronomy, theology, philosophy, and art. Ibn-Sina was also known for Kitab al Shifa (Book of Healing), within which he divided practical knowledge into ethics, economics, and politics, and theoretical knowledge into mathematics, physics, and metaphysics (Meyers, 1964). Al-Razi, known in Latin as Rhazes, excelled within the powers of observations and wrote some 184 works on topics that he studied as a practising doctor. one in all Al-Razi’s books, Treatise on Smallpox and Measles, was translated into Latin, then English and other European languages, and “went through forty editions between the fifteenth and nineteenth century” (Turner, 1995, p.135). Furthermore, he established separate wards in hospitals for the unsound, thereby creating the means for clinical observations of those diseases. Al-Razi also included in his studies ideas involving human behaviour and he was a pioneer within the field of psychology, thus removing the theories of demons and witchcraft related to these diseases within the Christian world. By the twelfth century Muslim physicians had produced many works: encyclopaedias, medical biographies, texts on medical ethics, and on specialist topics like ophthalmology. Ibn An-Nafīs contradicted the theories of blood circulation as advises by Galen. He advanced a theory of blood circulation between the compartments of the guts and also the lungs, and of circulation or lesser circulation. In 1553, three centuries later, a Spaniard Miguel Serveto (Michael Servetus) forwarded the same theory (Meyerhof, 1935). Ibn An-Nafīs’s theory from the thirteenth 394 Contributions of Islamic scholars to the scientific enterprise century was largely ignored. But he was among the initial precursors to Harvey’s scholarly work that exposed the circulation of blood within the anatomy. Muslims using their clinical and surgical knowledge established hospitals. These institutions were far superior to any that existed in earlier period or in lands beyond the Islamic Empire. In medieval Europe most hospitals were attached to spiritual orders and monasteries. within the Islamic world, during the eighth century the primary hospital was inbuilt Damascus; having separate wards for males and females, and special wards for internal diseases, surgery, orthopaedics and other diseases. These hospitals were to become models for hospitals as we all know them today (Turner, 1995). Important surgical treatises were written within the tenth and therefore the eleventh centuries in Andalusia by Abu’l-Qasim al-Zahrawi, known in Europe as Abulcais. His book Kitab al-Tasrif (Book of Concessions), a medical almanac, was translated into Latin and utilized by Muslims and in European medical schools. The twelfth century physician in Muslim Spain, Ibn Zuhr, referred to as Avenzoar, wrote works especially in anatomy that had an excellent influence on practice in medieval Europe. Thus within the medical field scholars from the Islamic world had much to contribute both in terms of working with ancient knowledge and thru the key developments of their own. Moreover, they verified their theories through careful observations within the hospitals that they'd established.

Chemistry, Pharmacology and Pharmacy In chemistry, the works of Jaber ibn Haiyan and Al-Razi formed the idea of recent science. Jaber, know as Geber in Latin, described in his works the preparation of the many chemical substances: the sulphide of mercury, oxides and arsenic compounds. Al-Razi in his book Secret of Secrets know as Liber secretorum bubacaris, described the chemical processes and experiments he conducted. Hill (1993, p.83) has stated that Al-Razi’s book Secret of Secrets ‘foreshadows a laboratory manual’ it deals with substances, equipment and procedures. Muslim chemists developed recipes for products that had industrial and military applications. the invention of inorganic acids during chemical experiments had valuable industrial applications within the centuries that followed. within the fields of pharmacology and pharmacy Muslims made notable progress. These fields involved scientific investigation into the composition, dosages, uses and therapeutic effects of medication. Having translations of Dioscorides’ De Materis Medica, together with knowledge from Syria, Persia, India and therefore the Far East, Muslim scholars and physicians showed great innovative skills. They developed the procedures for the manufacture of syrups and juleps, and established apothecary shops (Turner, 1995). Ibn al-Baytar’s book Al-Jami‘fi al-Tibb (Collection of straightforward Diets and Drugs) contained detailed records of the plants within the lands along the length of the Mediterranean coast between Spain and Syria. additionally, he systematically compared this information thereupon of the scientists of previous eras. His book on botany was used until the Renaissance by Europeans. Mathematical Sciences The mathematical sciences as practised within the Islamic world during this era consisted of mathematics, algebra, and geometry still as mathematical geography, astronomy and optics. Muslims derived their theory of numbers (‘ilm al-a‘dad) in arithmetic from translations of the Greeks sources like Books VΙΙ through to ΙX of Euclid’s Elements and also the Introduction to the Science of Numbers by Nicomachus of Gerasa (Berggren, 1997). Moreover, they acquired numerals from India (Hindu) and possibly China and made their use widespread. Mohammad Bin Ahmed within the tenth century invented the concept of zero or sifr. Thus replacing the cumbersome Faruqi 395 Roman numerals and creating a revolution in mathematics (Badawi, 2002). This led to advances within the prediction of the movement of the planets and advances within the fields of astronomy and geography. Muslim mathematics had inherited both the Babylonian sexagecimal system and also the Indian (Hindu) decimal number system, and this provided the premise for numerical techniques in mathematic (Folkerts, 2001; Rajagopal, 1993). Muslims built mathematical models using the positional notation, expressing all numbers by means of ten symbols, and every symbol accorded the worth of position still as definite quantity (Kettani, 1976). Many creative methods of doing multiplications were developed by Muslims; methods of checking by casting out nines, and decimal fractions (Anawati, 1976). Thus Muslim scholars contributed and laid the foundations of contemporary mathematics and also the use of mathematics within the fields of science and engineering (Høyrup, 1987). Thabit bin Qurrah not only translated Greek works but also argued against and elaborated on the widely accepted views of Aristotle. In arithmetic there emerged the concept of irrational numbers with Islamic mathematicians ranging from a non-Euclidean concept. Both Umar Khayyam (1048- 1131) and Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201-1274) contributed to research on this idea which didn't have its origins in Greek mathematics. Eastern Muslims derived numerals from Sanskrit-١‘٢‘٣‘٤‘٥‘٦‘٧‘٨ and ٩, and that they were the primary to develop the employment of the zero (sifr), written as 0 by the Western Muslims and ‘·’ by Eastern Muslims (Kettani, 1976, p.137). Whereas these Eastern Muslims had initially used the Arabic alphabets as numerals, by the ninth century Western Muslims had invented and replaced them with “al-arqam al-gubariyah-1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 and 9-based on variety of angles up to the load of every symbol” (Kettani,1976, p.137). Thus the zero with the numerals made it possible for the easy expressions for numbers to own infinite values, thereby helping solve particular problems. Translations of mathematical treatise in Spain subsequently transferred this information to Europe. Al-Khwarizmi wrote the primary book of algebra, the word ‘algebra’ transliterates into the term aljabr. Al-jabr represents the 2 basic operations utilized by al-Khwarizmi in solving quadratic equations. within the latter 1/2 the twelfth century, the primary a part of al-Khwarizmi’s Kitab al-Jabr wa al-Muqabalah was translated and made available in Europe (Kettani, 1976; Sarton, 1927). Another famous contributor to the present field was Umar Khayyam, who studied cubic equations and algebra came to be considered a science in its title. Subsequently in later centuries Italians took over his methods and extended them (Anawati, 1976). Thus the Muslims not only developed the methods of solving quadratic equations they also produced tables containing sine, cosine, cotangent and other trigonometrical values. Al-Battani (d.929) systematically developed trigonometry and extended it to trigonometry (Kettani, 1976; Sarton, 1927), with important consequences for astronomy, geography and exploration beyond the known world, thus making the development of higher maps and also the reconceptualisation of the structure of the earth Earth. Arabic geometry absorbed not only materials and methods of Euclid’s Elements but also the works of Apollonius and Archimedes. The book, On the Measurements of Planes and Spherical Figures, written on Archimedean problems by the three sons of Musa bin Shakir within the ninth century became known within the West through the interpretation by Gerard of Cremona. In seventeenth century Europe the issues formulated by physicist (965-1041) became called “Alhazen’s problem”. Again his work that was translated into Latin made Europeans conscious of alHaytham’s remarkable achievements within the field of Optics (Kitab al-Manazir) (Meyers, 1964, p.32). Among his works were included a theory of vision and a theory of sunshine, and was called by his successors of the twelfth century “Ptolemy the Second”. Furthermore by promoting the utilization of experiments in research, al-Haytham played a very important role in setting the scene in modern science (Rashed, 2002, p.773).

Al-Haytham’s contributions to geometry and number theory went well beyond the Archimedean tradition. Al-Haytham also worked on geometry and therefore the beginnings of the link between algebra and geometry. Subsequently, this work led in math to the harmonious fusion of algebra and geometry that was epitomised by Descartes in geometric analysis and by Newton within the calculus. Al-Haytham was a scientist who made major contributions to the fields of mathematics, physics and astronomy during the latter 1/2 the tenth century. John Peckham within the late-thirteenth century used al-Haytham’s Kitab al-Manazir and Witelo’s Optics too has echoes of Kitab al-Manazir. Witelo work was employed by Johannes Kepler. monk, the founding father of experimental science, probably used the first Arabic works of al-Haytham in addition as Latin translations (Meyers, 1964). Much work was under-taken by Islamic mathematicians regarding the speculation of parallels. This theory consisted of a gaggle of theorems whose proofs relied on Euclidean postulates. The Islamic mathematicians continued their research for over 500 years on these postulates so as to get proofs and not just the acceptance of them. However, after these problems were transmitted to Europe within the twelfth century, little further research was done until the sixteenth century. Muslim scholars contributed not only to the utilization of logic within the development of mathematical ideas and relationships, but also to a workable system of numeration that included zero and led to the answer of equations. Muslims had thus begun the work that led on to mathematical modelling and its application for the aim of testing their theories. this information and approach was slowly transferred to Europe through Spain and Sicily. Astronomy Muslim scholars considered astronomy in concert of the mathematical sciences. Muslims came upon ancient astronomical manuscripts and translated them into Arabic. They then undertook observations to verify the calculations in these scientific works. The Greek astronomer Ptolemy had developed an astronomical theory about the movements of the moon and planets; and had placed the planet at the centre of the universe. so as to atone for errors in observation he had attributed additional movements to the planets. Al-Khwarizmi was one amongst the primary scholars to supply a close astronomical table (zij). This astronomical table provided the means of calculating the positions of the celebrities and planets. Subsequently, each astronomer wrote his own zij, trying to form it more accurate than those prepared before (Beshore, 1998). Al-Farghani, within the ninth century wrote an in depth account of Ptolemy’s Almagest and his book was used throughout Europe and central Asia for the following 700 years (Beshore, 1998, p. 24). This work was the beginnings of the empirical verification of scientific ideas and relationships. Muslim philosophers and astronomers had inherited the Ptolemaic planetary system that hypothesised the principle of uniform circular motion allowing the planets to maneuver in epicycles. However, Muslim astronomers eventually came to reject this theory in this the epicyclic movement violated the principle of uniformity of motion. within the thirteenth century, Al-Tusi, a Persian astronomer advance his concept referred to as the “Tusi Couple”, a hypothetical model of “epicyclic motion that involves a mix of motions each of which was uniform with relation to its own center”(Turner, 1995, p.68). This model was applied by Ibn al-Shatir to the motions of the heavenly bodies within the fourteenth century. Ibn al-Shatir’s formulations were the beginnings of verifying theoretical astronomy through systematic observations. Ibn al-Shatir’s theory of lunar motion was very kind of like that attributed to Copernicus some 150 years later (Sabra, 2002). Currently researchers are investigating whether it had been possible, that Copernicus visiting the Vatican library in Rome had seen Ibn al-Shatir’s fourteenth century manuscript illustrating his concept of planetary motion (Saliba, 2002). the explanation for this supposition being a diagram in Copernicus’ Commentaries that was remarkable like Ibn alShatir’s schematic diagrams. Whereas Ibn al-Shatir’s concept of planetary motion was conceived Faruqi 397 so as to play a very important role in an earth-centred planetary model, Copernicus used the identical concept of motion to present his sun-centred planetary model. Thus the event of different models passed that permitted an empirical testing of the models. Whether there was a clearly identifiable connection between the works of those two men today remains unclear, but what has to be noted is that Muslim innovations in astronomical theory contributed to the historical development of astronomical science (Turner, 1995). The medieval astrolabe can be calibrated to be used at different geographical locations to calculate yearlong celestial time keeping data, and other astronomical information (Turner, 1995). These medieval astrolabes reached Europe within the late Middle Ages and were mentioned in many texts, and were included in an essay by poet. Celestial globes, astrolabes, quadrants, and sundials all evolved and developed in Islamic countries, and when the compass arrived within the Islamic lands, it too was adapted by the Muslims. However they will not have initiated the employment of the compass, because it'd seem the origins of the employment of the compass haven't clearly been identified, and will have originated in China. Thus Muslim scholars worked all told major branches of astronomy: theoretical and computational planetary astronomy, spherical astronomy and time keeping, instrumentation, and folk astronomy. King (2004) did extensive research on Muslim instrumentation and stated that “medieval European instrumentation was highly indebted to the Islamic tradition, and now it's clear only after ca.1550 did European instrument-makers make technical innovations that had not been known to Muslim astronomers previously” (King, 2004, p.47).

FILTERING OF knowledge domain FROM THE ISLAMIC WORLD TO EUROPE The conquest of the Eastern Empire by the Arabs meant that Western Christendom was empty the most reservoir of Greek learning for hundreds of years by intolerance and mutual suspicion of opposing creeds, further because the breadth of the Mediterranean (Crombie, 1963). But as early because the end of the tenth century knowledge had began filtering from the Islamic world to the West. Thompson (1929) in his article “The Introduction of Arabic Science into Lorraine within the Tenth Century” discussed the question of Arabic science being introduced within the schools of Lorraine as early because the end of the tenth century and thereby into Latin Europe. Thus an intellectual avenue through Spain to Europe beyond the Pyrenees was opened by the expansion of the Islamic Empire across North Africa. Throughout the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in Spain and Sicily, the transmission of knowledge domain continued with the establishment of an Arabic-Latin translation program. In Sicily after the Norman kingdom was established in 1060, its Latin, Greek and Muslim subjects lived in additional favourable conditions than those in Spain (Crombie, 1963) for the expansion of intercultural and intellectual exchange. Here the knowledge of antiquity was rediscovered in its original Greek versions and therefore the major developments recorded in Arabic that were subsequently translated into Latin (Burnett, 2001; Schramm: 2001), in corners of Europe before the Renaissance.

DISCUSSION it's been seen that the students working within the Islamic Empire spanning over three continents started within the beginning with the interpretation movement, still as creating the required language tools in Arabic for the translations of the works of the Greeks, Persians, Indians and every one ancient knowledge. But having acquired the knowledge they set about not only assimilating, testing and analysing, but also adding important and original contributions to it knowledge. Beginning from the tip of the tenth century this data began to filter back to Europe through the translations of Arabic versions of the Greek knowledge and also the original Greek treatises (Burnett, 2001). But also transferred to Europe were the seminal contributions of students of the Islamic world. Modern science as we all know it today works with theories and models that has got to be tested empirically, starting within the fields of mathematics, astronomy and medicine. The Muslims developed the procedures for testing knowledge both empirically and logically. However a very important characteristic of Islamic science was its experimental character. Islamic scientists were interested especially within the applied sciences, within the construction of apparatus, in testing theories by undertaking observations, and analysis of results through mathematics (Bammate, 1959). These ideas and procedures were all available in Western Europe through the seminal works of Islamic scholars before the days of Galileo, Descartes and Newton to whom they need been largely attributed.

FUTURE RESEARCH While there's currently research being allotted on the utilization of single works or the ideas and writings of individual authors, it's too early to draw all possible conclusions. so as to create a comprehensive picture of both the interpretation processes, and also the transmission of knowledge base from Hellenic language libraries to the Islamic world, culminating within the eighth and ninth centuries (Sabra, 1996; Sabra, 1987) and also the subsequent translation and transmission of Islamic scholarly works to Europe during the twelfth to fourteenth centuries further scholarly work is required. Fortunately various collections of Arabic manuscripts are still preserved in European libraries. Further detailed investigations would help throw light on the critical role of Islamic scholarly works within the development of Renaissance Europe (Saliba, 1999). what's important to notice is that the Islamic conception of God (Bausani, 1974) made possible a serious advance in scientific thinking during the amount of the eighth to the fifteenth centuries in Islamic lands, while Europe lay largely dormant during the Middle Ages. Developments would only appear to possess occurred in Europe where there was direct contact with Islamic knowledge in Spain and France, until the autumn of Constantinople in 1453. Thus the initial development of contemporary Science didn't occur in Italy with the spectacular work of Galileo, but within the Islamic world several centuries earlier, where it slowly and gradually advanced in ways in which are largely ignored but scholars in Western Europe.

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